Anne Conway discussed many different theories within her main work of philosophy, “The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy.” Within this piece, she argues the theories of another well-known philosopher of their time, Rene Descartes. While Descartes, as a scholar, focused on many different subjects, such as geometry, algebra, sciences, etc; he also wrote a lot about the foundation of the world, life, and functioning. In regards to metaphysics and epistemology, the two philosophers ponder similar theories but have very different perspectives. These different perspectives partially stem from their education. Anne Conway’s beliefs came from a platonist outlook, whereas Descartes had a very rationalist perspective.
The philosophical education of Conway and Descartes was very different. Beginning with the fact that Conway was female, education was much more challenging to obtain and in many cases not an option at all. Henry More, a member of the Cambridge scholars, offered to teach Conway through pen pal. While this education was an excellent opportunity for a female at the time, it still provided a very narrow and (somewhat) biased foundation of information. Through her own terms, Conway sought more information through different sources such as the Kabbalah and Quakerism. Due to her gender and ailments, Conway was limited in her speech and only ever published one work, “The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy,” for which she was credited as the author years later after death.
Rene Descartes’ philosophical journey was different in many ways. In 1606, Descartes attended the Jesuit College in La Fleche. Afterwards, he went to Poitiers, where he obtained his degree in law. By 1618, Descartes moved to the Netherlands to study math, military architecture, and science. From 1619 to 1628, Descartes traveled Europe and invented new formulas for mathematics and philosophy, such as analytic geometry and deductive reasoning. Over the course of his life, Descartes was able to meet many scholars and discuss different ideas and theories.
In terms of philosophical views, Descartes and Conway’s arguments start with their definition of substances. Descartes believed that there were only two distinct substances. The first substance is the material body which he defines by extension. The second substance is mental substances which he defines as thought. On the other hand, Conway argues that there are three distinct substances: God, middle ground, and creatures. All of these substances are related, for they all contain spirit. God is of pure spirit. Middle grounds are creature-like but God-like in the sense that they have a higher degree of spirit. Lastly there are creatures which share a combination of spirit and matter. All three substances are created by and connected to God and share characteristics such as spirit, causality, and change.
To Conway, Descartes’ idea of purely material substance is impossible. She argues that material is evil and spirit is good. Since God is omnibenevolent, he would never create something completely evil, so an utterly material substance could not exist. Additionally, Conway states that spirituality is what creates light. If a substance were purely material, then it would have no light and therefore never been seen. Conway’s broad argument against Descartes is that spirit and matter are not substantially different, but both have extension and divisibility.
Rene Descartes also developed the theory of Cartesian dualism, which argues that the Mind and Body are two different and separate substances. To find this argument, he begins by doubting everything. In doing so, he finds that one of the only concepts he cannot doubt is the ‘Mind.’ By doubting, he is thinking, which means that the Mind, or a thinking device, must exist. This idea is also famously known as the Cogito, Descartes phrase: “I think, therefore I am.” Following this theory, Descartes uses the concept of Leibniz’s Law, which states that if two things are identical in their properties, then they cannot be two distinct things. If these two things are not distinct from each other and share the same properties, then they must be the same. Because of this, if the Body can be doubted but the Mind can’t, then they have different properties and must be separate substances. In regards to man, Descartes then argues that there is a dual existence. Man consists of matter (or Body), the physical being, and Mind (or soul), the non-physical substance.
Conway has many problems with Descartes’s theory of dualism which begins with the argument that spirit and matter (or Mind and Body) are separate, unchangeable, and distinct in essence. According to Conway, Body and soul are non-distinct from one another but are simply degrees of the same substance that differs in density. She argues that the Body and soul are modal and incremental. The analogy she uses to illustrate this change is through a scale of light and dark. The Soul is represented by light and the Body by darkness. Substances gradually move throughout this scale by degrees of spirit and matter.
One of the stronger arguments that Conway makes against Descartes and dualism is the idea that substances can only differ in actuality if they are different in “original and peculiar” cause. She then follows to explain that all created substances have the same original and peculiar cause, therefore the same nature. With this argument, the premise argued by Descartes, that all substances are distinct essentially and substantially, is proven false.
In her writing, Conway also argues that dualists are hypocritical in their definitions. Dualists make an absolute division between the Body and Mind. Yet, dualists also seem to recognize that the Mind and Body share some characteristics. Further, Conway argues specifically Descartes’s definition of the Body being dead (also referred to as lifeless). This idea of “dead matter” is very flawed because it denies the “vital agreement” between the Body and Mind.
Anne Conway, unfortunately, died before her work was published and distributed. Due to this, Descartes and Conway were never able to debate their views and criticisms. While their ideas may have been opposing, the philosophical community continues to discuss the theories of substances and reality that Conway and Descartes pioneered today.