The most interesting aspect of Butler’s natural religion to me is his conception of God as a moral ruler, and his justification for this life being a time of trial meant for the development of our morality.
He arrives at these points by first establishing that there is an author of creation. His next step is to say that there is a high likelihood that there is life after death. He arrives at this by saying that, as we can assume we will be alive tomorrow unless some outside circumstance prevents it, there must be some evidence for the end of continued existence before we accept the end of our lives. Death may be the likely answer to this question, but Butler rebukes this. He says that there are many examples of states where the signs of death or those of a lack of life are apparent but the person returns unharmed. He also says that this body is a mere instrument, and if replaced we could continue living in the same state as we were in before. He supports this by giving the example of a prosthetic leg or a crutch. Though the original part of the body through which the proof of life was performed was lost, when given a new instrument its function can continue. Therefore, there is no reason to think the actual essence of our living is lost with the instrument and cannot be continued in another state. We have lived and will live in other states even within our own life, changing in childhood, youth, and old age. Yet, we remain the same living agents.
His next step is to show that the author of creation or God has created the universe in the manner of a government. People are rewarded and punished in accordance with their response to God’s laws. This can be seen through simple cause and effect. We as people know that there are actions we can take to acquire certain pleasure and pains and that if we pursue certain actions they will bring certain results. This is the course of nature but as Butler says, “ ‘But this is to be ascribed to the general course of nature.’ True. This is the very thing which I am observing. It is to be ascribed to the general course of nature; i.e. not surely to the words or ideas, course of nature; but to him who appointed it…”(Butler Analogy of religion pg. 75). Our actions are punished and rewarded so we are under the ultimate government of God. Though some people live miserable lives, aka they act in ways they know will bring misery, these situations can also be explained. “Now the circumstances of these natural punishments, particularly deserving our attention, they follow, or are inflicted in consequence of, actions which procure many present advantages, and are accompanied with much present pleasure…that these punishments are often greater than the advantages or pleasure obtained by the actions”(Butler Analogy of Religion pg. 79). His example of this would be intemperance leading to sickness or untimely death. He also points out that the punishment for such actions are seldom immediate but are greatly delayed and then piled on suddenly. As we have no reason to think that our life essence will end with our temporal existence, it is natural that such delays and later punishments will be continued in a similar manner after death.
Butler also argues that we are under a moral government. He supports this by pointing out our natural inclination to morality. We feel good when we act virtuously and feel poor when we act for vice alone. Our societies are structured to reward the benevolent and punish the deviant. Those who pursue vice do it on account of the perversion of passions meant for better causes. The lack of justice in the world is also the result of accidents or unknown circumstances, which prevent the natural moral work we feel obliged to fulfill. Yet, in a future world where all circumstances are known, all acts of good can be rewarded and all vice can be punished. In imagining that future state one can see the compounded moral justice results in a heavenly kingdom.
With the establishment of God’s moral government comes the idea that this life is a time of trial. We clearly see in our own lives that to live a good temporal life we must deny certain immediate pleasures, knowing they will bring negative future consequences. Our future temporal wellbeing is dependent on our actions, and likewise the wellbeing of our future life is also dependent on our actions.
As this temporal life is in fact a time of trial for a future life, there is a purpose for this trial and it is for the development of our morality. We see that there are some things needed for the enjoyment of temporal life, and it is likely there are some prerequisite characteristics needed for the enjoyment of future life. We see in our lives that humans have the capacity to form habits and from those habits change elements of their nature, so that they may act differently in the world. When first born and in our youth, we are not a state to fulfill the requirements of later life, so we require education and discipline. Through this we learn we must do things we would rather not do and that we must sacrifice desirable things for our own greater good. Through this education we become ready for mature life and are better able to enjoy this period of life. Knowing that God’s government is moral, we can understand the need to craft our own morality through discipline to fit his future kingdom. Self-discipline for the sake of our moral character is further necessary because we are inclined to desire certain things regardless of if they can continue to be obtained without vice. Without the proper development of discipline and proper habit, we can fall prey to these temptations, and those who were without fault can quickly become steeped in it through a lack of proper habit. These faults furthermore are not only bad because of their own vice but they also weaken one’s moral constitution and make them more susceptible to vice. Yet, people have a want of self improvement, both the virtuous and those who have fallen prey to vice, discipline is needed by both but more so by those who wish to redeem themselves. Now objections may be raised against this. One might easily point out that few people develop these virtues in life, and then might think that this trial was not meant for our moral improvement. Butler responds, “But that the present world does not actually become a state of moral discipline to many, even to the generality…cannot be urged as a proof, that it was not intended for moral discipline, by any at all who observe the analogy of nature. For, of the numerous seeds of vegetables and bodies of animals, which are adapted and put in the way, to improve to such a point or state of natural maturity and perfection, we do not see perhaps that one in a million actually does. Far the greatest part of them decay before they are improved to it; and appear to be absolutely destroyed”(Butler Analogy of Religion pg. 130). Many seeds fail to actualize their improvement, but this doesn’t detract from their intended purpose, being to grow and improve their state. We are in a time of trial under God’s moral government, to improve our moral discipline for the next life.
Glossary:
Natural religion: Natural religion is the religious truths which can be deduced and understood through observation of the world and reason.
A part of Butler’s Analogy or Religion-
In Bishop Joseph Butler’s book, The Analogy of Religion, he lays out a defense for the validity of Christianity. In doing so he separated religion into two domains, being those of natural and revealed religion. Natural religion was that which could be deduced and understood through observation of the world and reason. Revealed religion was that which was revealed through divine revelation and came from God’s intercession. He would synchronize these two ways of gaining divine truth into a philosophy which supported traditional Christian beliefs. He argued that natural religion is true religion but that without divine intercession many of its tenets would have been unlikely to have been discovered without superstition had revelation not come. Furthermore, revelation was needed to help mankind as it and the world had fallen into a state of wickedness and ruin. Thus, Christianity was born out of mankind’s current needs and state. To him this did not conflict with his idea of natural religion which was only reinforced by the proclamations from heaven, revealed by Jewish and Christian prophets through the ages and recounted in the Bible.
Temporal: That which relates to our current mortal and earthly lives as opposed to heavenly or spiritual matters or realities.