Utilitarianism
The Principle of Utility
Jeremy Bentham’s most notable and famous work was An Introduction to the Principles of Moral and Legislation in which he laid out the theory of Utilitarianism, the first major book on this topic. Bentham begins his book with the famous declaration:
“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do… They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think: every effort we can make to throw off our subjection, will serve but to demonstrate and confirm it… The principle of utility recognises this subjection, and assumes it for the foundation of that system, the object of which is to rear the fabric of felicity by the hands of reason and of law.” [1]
In this passage, Bentham asserts that nature has placed mankind under two “sovereign masters”: pain and pleasure. There is nothing that mankind can do that isn’t in direct effect from these causes [20]. From this we see that Bentham supports two main concepts: (1) that pleasure and pain are the only sources for all goals and (2) that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic evil [57]. He connects these two hedonist concepts together under the principle of utility. This principle forms the foundation of Bentham’s legal and moral framework, providing a standard by which to judge the rightness of actions and the justification for laws.
Community
Bentham takes this legal and moral framework and extends it from individuals to the community. This principle dictates that the greatest happiness of all those whose interests are involved is the sole proper end of human action (similarly for governments). In other words, the best “interest of the community” is simply the sum of the interests of the individual members who compose it [20]. When a legislator is to decide on legal principles, they need only to focus on how the community’s happiness is greater than its tendency to diminish it [43].
Felicific (Hedonic) Calculus
To decide which act to undertake or how to act, a person must calculate, as best as he can, the pains and pleasures that are to be expected from the action [22]. Bentham claims that there are seven considerations when determining the value of pleasure: (1) intensity, (2) duration, (3) certainty/uncertainty, (4) nearness/remoteness, (5) fecundity, (6) purity, and (7) extent [22]. He outlines a process where one takes account of the value of initial pleasures and pains produced by an act, followed by the pleasures and pains resulting from those initial ones (considering fecundity and purity), sums them up for an individual, and then repeats this for all individuals affected to determine the act’s overall good or bad tendency for the community. In a legal framework, the same calculation should guide legislators in formulating laws. In preparation for a counterargument, Bentham acknowledges that this process shouldn’t be done for all actions, but should “always be kept in view” [23].
Arguments for the Principle
To justify his own theory, Bentham proposes that the principle is grounded in the basic, undeniable reality of human experience [6] . Pain and pleasure govern everything we do, say, and think. Any attempt to escape their influence only confirms our subjection to them. The Principle of Utility simply acknowledges this empirical fact and builds upon it. While not every person consciously embraces the principle in its entirety, Bentham contends that, due to human nature, people generally embrace it in practice even without thinking about it [11]. He also admits that the principle of utility does not have a direct proof, because “that which is used to prove every thing else, cannot itself be proved” [11]. In other words, since this principle justifies all other proofs (i.e. a chain of proofs), it in itself both cannot and need-not a logical proof. In a jab at those who try to argue for his lack of a proof he writes, “Is it possible for a man to move the earth? Yes; but he must first find out another earth to stand on” [8].
Bentham also argues against three opposing principles, the principle of asceticism, the principle of caprice, and the principle of theology.
Principle of Asceticism
This principle directly opposes utility by approving of actions that diminish happiness and disapproving actions that augment it (he links this principle to the likes of “monks”). He argues that the principle of asceticism is ultimately just the principle of utility misapplied, as those that follow the principle merely over generalized certain pleasures which lead to greater pains, causing a rejection of pleasure itself [12]. More importantly, he notes that while utility can be consistently followed for the betterment of mankind, asceticism cannot. Even if a small portion of people were to follow such a principle, the world would become a living hell.
Principle of Caprice
Bentham spends considerable time trying to dismantle this principle, which approves or disapproves of actions “merely because a man finds himself disposed to approve or disapprove of them,” taking that sentiment as sufficient reason in itself [15]. In other words, the principle hinges on personal feelings rather than objective reasoning. This principle, he argues, leads to inconsistency (what is right one day could be different on the next) and makes arguments impossible (what one man likes could be different from that of another man) [15]. Bentham furthers his argument that various ethical systems that appeal towards “moral sense,” “common sense,” “understanding,” etc., all are merely different phrases for avoiding an appeal to an external standard and rather promoting the actor’s own sentiment [15-17]. He finally notes that while this principle can often coincide with utility because harmful acts naturally provoke dislike, this is not a constant or reliable ground as the principle is prone to errors [17].
Principle of Theology
Bentham’s final rebuttal is against what he calls the “principle of theology,” which in itself isn’t a distinct principle but a combination of the others. He argues that since God’s will is only revealed in scriptures which require interpretation using some other standard. We interpret his words, and our pleasures are pronounced as his [19]. God’s will invariably aligns with what we ourselves already believe based on some other principle, meaning that God is only able to show us what is right after we already believe it to be so.
Conclusion
In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Jeremy Bentham presents a revolutionary and systematic framework for ethics and law. By grounding morality in the empirical measurement of pleasure and pain, he sought to move ethical judgment away from what he saw as the arbitrary foundations of caprice or misapplied theology. His principle of utility and his felicific calculus for quantifying happiness, represent a bold attempt to transform morality into a rational, objective science.
This was not Bentham’s final stance on utilitarianism. As his thought matured, he introduced significant revisions and shifts in emphasis, particularly in later works such as Deontology. One of the most notable changes was a de-emphasis of the intricate, seven-part felicific calculus. While the IPML outlined it as a tool for legislators and individuals and noted the limitations of applicability. Bentham later recognized its impracticality for even as a practical calculator, framing it more as a theoretical ideal.
Furthermore, Bentham grew to prefer the phrase “the greatest happiness principle” over his original “principle of utility” (seen in his work First Principles Preparatory to Constitutional Code from 1822). He felt this new terminology was less cold and more clearly articulated the ultimate hedonistic goal of his entire system: maximizing well-being for the greatest number. His later work focused less on individual, moment-to-moment calculation and more on identifying the general rules that would most effectively be the judge in objective laws.
Glossary
Pleasure – The only thing that is intrinsically good.
Pain – The only thing that is intrinsically evil.
Utility – The total goodness and badness of an act. Usually calculated as the total pleasures and the total pains.
Principle of Utility – The principle which approves or disapproves of every action according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the utility of the community.
Fecundity – The chance of the sensation being followed by sensations of the same kind. (e.g. pleasure by pleasure, pain by pain)
Purity – The chance of the sensation not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind. (e.g. pain by pleasure, pleasure by pain)
Extent – The number of people affected by it.
Principle of Asceticism – The principle which approves of actions which diminish happiness and disapproves of actions which increase happiness.
Principle of Caprice (Principle of Sympathy and Antipathy) – The principle which approves or disapproves of actions based solely on the account of one person and their disposition to approve or disapprove.
References
Bentham, J. (1789). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/bentham1780.pdf
Bentham, J. (1995). Colonies, Commerce, and Constitutional Law: Rid Yourselves of Ultramaria and Other Writings on Spain and Spanish America. The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham.